Revenue Laws in the Yūsufzai State of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (An Analysis from Islamic Law’s Perspective)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53575/e1.v5.04.(21)1-15Keywords:
Ushar, Zakāt, Rewāj, Revenue Laws, Taxation, System, Islamic Law, Swat, StateAbstract
The taxation system is crucial for every country to perform its duties in an organized way and, at the same time, to develop itself, too. The Yūsufzai state of Swat, on the same way, had been developed vividly with an efficient system of ‘Ushar and Zakāt – the tax tools at that time. In this research endeavor, the taxation laws of the former Swat state, with primary focus on ‘Ushr, had been discussed and analyzed, too, critically from Sharī’ah perspective – as the head of the state, at that time, used to claim all state laws as Sharī’ah based. While probing this claim, only authentic and reliable sources had been used; applying the content analysis technique of qualitative research. During the analysis, it came to know that tax laws in the state were originated, primarily, from Islamic law followed Rewāj and laws of developed nations. These latter sources were either Sharī’ah based or Sharī’ah complied – at least. The mechanism for the collection of tax was including, not exhaustively, the contract of ‘Ijāra (lease) through auction process. This method of auction was in line with Sharī’ah. The ‘Ijāragar (contractor), for instance, was allowed to collect more than the stipulated quantity which he used to keep it as profit.in addition to this, ‘Ushar and Zakāt were also used as main sources for the generation of revenue. The mechanism, followed, herein, was also Sharī’ah based to a large extent. In addition, some other revenue sources were derived from Rewāj. Study reveals that few of such sources were in consistent with the basic guidelines of Islamic law.
References
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The Yūsufzū state of Swat remained princely state until its accession to Pakistan in 1969. It is located in the north of Pakistan from Skhā-Kot (District Malākand) 34.4579° North and 71.9075° East in Malākand division. Presently, the Qabāilu Masharān (tribal chieftains) of urban Swat and its contiguous areas, like, Buner etc. feared the invasion from the Chief of another strong neighbor called ‘Dir Nawāb’. Hence, Qabāilu Masharān met in a Ghwanda (council) arranged at Kabal Dāg (spacious area or ground), whereby, they chose Miyāṇgull ‘Abdul Wadūd as their Wāli (ruler) in Sep, 1917… (Bakht Taj Mingora, Tārīkhi Swāt (Mingora, Tāj company ltd. 2015): 112-113). He ruled until Dec 12th, 1949, and his son Miyāṇgull ‘Abdul Ḥaqq Jahāṇ Zeb, then, was acceded who ruled from Dec 12th, 1949 to July 28th, 1969. The population was five lacs as mentioned by Muftī Shāh Ḥussain Shāmzai . He stated :
"طویل عرصہ میں بانیِ سوات اپنے محکم عزائم ۔۔۔۔۔۔۔۔ پانچ لاکھ انسانوں کی کشتی ِحیات کا یہ خدائی امتحان سہتے رہے۔"
Meaning thereby, “the founder of Swat with his unwavering will in long term… he remained persistent as he was subject to test of God, bearing the life boat of five lac people.” …See for further details …Muftī Shāh Ḥussain Shāmzai, Wādī Swāt kay ‘Āṇsū (Lahore, Nadīm Yūnus Printers, 2014): 36
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A word of Pushto language used for ‘shepherd’.
A word of Pushto language used for ‘status’.
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Zakāt literally means, ‘increase’ or ‘growth’. A certain payment either monetarily or in other form becomes payable on known item after a span of one year by reaching to Niṣāb (a certain thing reaching to a specific number or amount). See for minute details of Zakāt… Al-Mousū’atul Fiqhiyyatul Kuwaitiyyah, 2nd Ed., (Kuwait, Dār ul Salāsil, 1425/2004) 23:225-6.
‘Ushr literally means ‘tenth of something’. In Islamic law it means tenth (10th) of agricultural produce. According to some fuqahā (jurists) it is another sub-type of Zakāt. See for the detailed discussion of the issue… Moḥammad bin ‘Ibrāhīm bin ‘Abdullah al-tawījrī, Mukhtaṣar al-fiqh ul Islamī fī Ḍauw’el Qur’ān wa al-Sunnah, 11th ed., (Saudi Arabia, Dār aṣdā’ al-Mujtama’, 1431/2010) 1:601
Moḥammad bin ‘Ibrāhīm bin ‘Abdullah al-tawījrī, Mukhtaṣar al-fiqh ul Islamī fī Ḍauw’el Qur’ān wa al-Sunnah,1:586-608
Bederman, David J. Custom as a Source of Law. Cambridge University Press, 2010
‘Rewāj’ or ‘Narkh’ means, the unwritten codes of Pukhtūn’s way of life embedded in their minds; observed throughout the Pukhtūn belt of Pakistan and Afghanistan with slight changes from place to place. It is also known as Pukhtunwali. Please see for the comprehensive details… http://www.khyber.org/culture/a/Codes_of_Pakhtoonwali.shtml (accessed on Jan 23rd, 2020).
Yousufzai, Hassan M., and Ali Gohar. Towards Understanding Pukhtoon Jirga: An Indigenous Way of Peacebuilding and More... Just Peace International, 2005), 20
Ghazala Rafi, "The Fall of Swat Valley to the Taliban: Reflecting on Immediate and Long Term Causes." Pakistan Journal of Criminology 9, no. 2 (2017): 39
According to Shams-ul-‘Aimma Sarakhsī, Zakāt means ‘ to increase’ or ‘to clean’, while technically it means, “an obligation from Shāray’ (law-giver i.e. Allah) on well off people whose Māl (assets and properties) reaches or exceeds Niṣāb and remains in one’s possession (actual or constructive) for one year”…… Mohammad bin Aḥmad bin Abi Sahl Shamsul Aimma al-Sarakhsi, Al-Mabsūt Lil Sarakhsī, (Beirut, Dārul Ma’rifa, 1414/1993), 3:149.
Sultan-I Rome, "Administrative system of the Princely State of Swat", Journal of the research society of Pakistan XXXXIII, no. 2 (2006): 7.
Moḥammad bin ‘Ibrāhīm bin ‘Abdullah al-tawījrī, for instance, states
"ويشتمل على ما يلي: زكاة النقدين، زكاة بهيمة الأنعام، زكاة الخارج من الأرض، زكاة عروض التجارة، زكاة الفطر"
…Moḥammad bin ‘Ibrāhīm bin ‘Abdullah al-tawījrī, Mukhtaṣar al-fiqh ul Islamī fī Ḍauw’el Qur’ān wa al-Sunnah, 1:586-608.
Ibid, 1:601
An interview was conducted with Shah Salam Khan, resident of Saidu Sharif, Swat, who witnessed the revenue and judicial system of the Swat state and, therefore, has a comprehensive knowledge regarding the same. His comments, when analyzed in the light of available secondary data, have been proved very much vital in nature.
Moḥammad bin al-Ḥassan al-Shaibānī, Al-Aṣl, 1st Ed. (Beirut, Dār ibni Ḥazm, 1433/2012) 2:129.
At the time of Bāchā Ṣeb (Miyāṇgull ‘Abdul Wadūd) twenty percent (20%) was used to be collected; ten percent as general ‘Ushar while 10% ‘Ushar as a tax for armed forces. Later on, Wālī Ṣeb (Miyāṇgull Jahāṇ Zeb), son of Bāchā Ṣeb, made it one seven and half (7.5) or two in fifteen (2/15). In 1969, before merger, Wālī Ṣeb reduced it to one tenth viz. 10% … Sultan-i-Rome, Riyāsat E Swat 1915 To 1969, (Lahore, Nadīm Yūnus Printers, 2013); 162-3.
The word is used for local pure oil. Sometime this dairy product is also called ‘Desi Ghee’.
Rome, S. I. "Administrative system of the Princely State of Swat." Journal of the research society of Pakistan 43, no. 2 (2006): 2-13,7.
Sultan-i-Rome, ed. Swat State (1915-1969) from Genesis to Merger: An Analysis of Political, Administrative, Socio-political, and Economic Development. Oxford University Press, USA, 2008.192.
Government of United Kingdom, Import, ‘Export and Customs Powers (Defence) Act 1939’, [Internet]; available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/2-3/69/contents
Husain, A. Sultan. "The Story of Swat as told by the Founder Miangul Abdul Wadud Badshah Sahib to Muhammad Arif Khan." (1962); With Preface, Introduction and Appendices by Muḥammad ‘Āṣif Khān, trans. Preface and trans by Ashruf Altāf Husain 2nd Ed. (Peshawar: New Raḥīl Printing Press, 2001), p. 224
Yasin, Hafiz M. "Social Welfare Program in the Former State of Swat (The Paradise Lost)." Dialogue 4, no. 3 (2009): 335-7.
Sultan-i-Rome, Riyasat E Swat 1915 To 1969, (Lahore, Nadīm Yūnus Printers, 2013), 162-3
Ijāragar was also called ‘Ijāradār’ and ‘Ushrī’. Moreover, the word ‘Ushrī’ was prevalent in the areas of Kohistan.
Yasin, Hafiz M. "Social Welfare Program in the Former State of Swat (The Paradise Lost)." Dialogue 4, no. 3 (2009): 336.
Such facts are collected from Umar Daraz, resident of Shaikhdara, Dubair Kohistan. He was an ‘Ushar collector at the state of Swat. He has been thoroughly interviewed by the researchers on 26th January, 2020.
According to renowned jurist Salmond, “law is the body of principles recognized and applied by the state in the administration of Justice.” … Salmond, John William. Jurisprudence: Or the theory of the law. Stevens and Haynes, 1907; 11-15.
Yasin, Hafiz M. "Social Welfare Program in the Former State of Swat (The Paradise Lost)." Dialogue 4, no. 3 (2009), 336
Sultan-i-Rome, Riyasat E Swat 1915 To 1969; 163.
The original text flows as under:
میاں گل نے رواج اور شریعت کو قانونی شکل دیتے ہوئے دو جلدوں میں فتاوی ودودیہ کے نام سے مجموعہ قوانین بھی مرتب کروایا۔(یہ مجموعہ مرتب کروانے کا خیال غالباً انہیں اورنگ زیب کی فتاوی عالمگیری کی شہرت کے سبب آیا ہوگا)۔ “Miyāṇgull (Bāchā Ṣeb) gave Sharī’ah and Rewāj a shape of legislation in two volumes, known as Fatāwa Wadūdiyyah. As per some historian, he was inspired by Aurang Zeb’s Fatāwa ‘Ālamgiriyyah and, therefore, had launched such codification… Wusatullah Khan, Bahisht-i-Marhoom ki yād maiṇ [Internet] available from …https://www.bbc.com/urdu/pakistan/story/2009/01/printable/090127_swat_history_wusat_zs.shtml (accessed 28th Feb, 2020)
Shirazi, Nasim Shah, and Hafiz M. Yasin. Fiscal structure, social welfare program and infrastructure development in the former state of Swat (Pakistan): a case study with implications for Muslim countries. No. 1433-8. 2015.
Sultan-i-Rome, Riyasat E Swat 1915 To 1969; 162.
‘"قال أبو حنيفة: العشر واجب في قليل ما أخرجت الأرض وكثيره، وهو قول مجاهد والنخعي، حكاه عنه حماد والحكم."
(According to Imām abū-Ḥanīfa ‘Ushr is obligatory on agricultural yield less or more… Please see for the minute details of the issue … ‘Aḥmad bin Moḥammad bin ‘Aḥmad bin Ja’far bin ḥamdān abū al-Ḥussayn al-Qudurī, al-Tajrīd li al- Qudurī, 2nd Ed. (Cairo, Dār al-Salām, 1427/2006), 3:1264.)
Ḥanafī Fiqh: Moḥammad bin al-Ḥassan al-Shaibānī, Al-Aṣl, 2:129;Mālikī Fiqh: ‘Alī bin Moḥammad bin al-Rub’ī (abū al-Ḥassan) alias al-Khumyi, al-Tabṣirah, 1st Ed, (Qatar, Wizārah al-Auwqāf wa al-Shu’ūn al-Islamiyyah, 1432/2011), 3:1087; Shāfi’ī Fiqh: Imām abū-Yūsuf and Imām Shāfi’ī added that there was no ‘Ushr in vegetables. Imām Shāfi’ī did not see ’Ushr in thimār (fruits) as well. … Abū al-Maḥāsin ‘Abd al-Wāḥid bin Ismā’īl al-Ru’yānī, Baḥr al-Madh’hab (Fī furū’ al-Madh’hab al-Shāfi’ī), 1st Ed. (Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 2009), 3:116;Ḥanbalī Fiqh: Ibn Qudāma added that the agricultural produce ought to reach five Auwsaq (plural of Wasq: a certain weight whose one Wasq is equal to sixty Ṣā’ and one Ṣā’ is equivalent to five whole one third of Arṭāl) for ‘Ushr to paid from it. … Abū Moḥammad Mūfiq al-dīn ‘Abd Allah bin ‘Aḥmad bin Moḥammad bin Qudāma al-Jamā’īlī al-Muqaddasī thumma al-dimashqi al-Ḥanbalī alias Ibn-Qudāma al-Muqaddasī, Al-Mughnī Li Ibn-Qudāma, (Cairo, Maktabah al-Qāhira, 1388/1968), 3:3.
The original text flows as;
ذَهَبَ الْفُقَهَاءُ إِلَى أَنَّ لِلإِمَامِ فَرْضَ ضَرَائِبَ عَلَى الْقَادِرِينَ لِوُجُوهِ الْمَصَالِحِ الْعَامَّةِ وَلِسَدِّ حَاجَاتِ الْمُسْلِمِينَ"
…Al-Mousū’atul Fiqhiyyatul Kuwaitiyyah, 2nd Ed., (Kuwait, Dār ul Salāsil, 2004), 13:35.
These Fuqahā, for example, include ’Ibrāhīm bin Musā bin Moḥammad al-Shāṭibī al-Gharnāṭī in Al-Ai’tiṣām, Abū ḥamid Moḥammad ibn Moḥammad al-Ghizālī in al-Muṣtaṣfā, Moḥammad Amīn bin ‘Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Ābidīn Shāmi al-Dimashqī in Ḥāshiya ibn-Ābidīn, Abū Moḥammad ‘Alī ibn Aḥmad ibn Sa’īd in Al-Muḥallā and etc.
The original text flows as under:
"تأمين حاجيات الدفاع عن البلاد: إذا اقتضت حاجات الدفاع عن الأمة أوا لجهاد في سبيل الله بعض الأموال، ولم يكن في الخزينة العامة ما يكفي لسد تلك الحاجة، فعلى الدولة أن تفرض في أموال الناس من الضرائب بقدر ما يندفع به الخطر عملاً بالمصالح المرسلة، وقد نص على ذلك كثير من علماء الإسلام مثل الغزالي والقرافي والشاطبي وابن حزم والعز بن عبد السلام وابن عابدين."...
Wahba bin Muṣṭafā Al-Zuḥaylī, al-fiqh al-‘Islāmī wa Adillatuhū, 4th Ed. (Damascus, Dār al-Fikr, 2011), 6:4589.
Moḥammad ‘Ibrāhīm Buneri Bazārgwi, Fatāwa Wadūdiyyah (Peshawar, Maktaba Dār-al-Salām, 1950): Bāb al-Zakāt.
The original text goes as;
فلا شيء فيه حتى يكون أربعين درهمًا، فيكون فيها درهم، ثم يعتبر في كل زيادة أربعين درهمًا""
…‘Aḥmad bin ‘Alī Abū-Bakkar al-Rāzī al-Jaṣṣāṣ, Sharḥ Mukhtaṣar al-Ṭaḥāwī, (Beirut, Dār al-Bashā’er al-‘Islāmiyyah, 1431/2010), 2:307.
Rome, Sultan-I. "Swat State (1915-1969): From Genesis to Merger-An analysis of political, administrative, socio-political and economic developments." (2008):191.
The original text goes as: “…What is more, by the old system, the siri land was exempt from the Lashkar tithe- only Pakhtuns used to have to provide men to the Lashkar. When we imposed the one part to seven-and-a-half rate, then everyone was made to pay equally for an enlarged State Militia.” … Jahanzeb, Miangul, and Fredrik Barth. The Last Wali of Swat: An Autobiography, Columbia University Press, 1985. 74-5.
Al-Mousū’atul Fiqhiyyatul Kuwaitiyyah,, 13:35.
Yasin, "Social Welfare Program in the Former State of Swat (The Paradise Lost)." 336.
It is plural of ‘‘Āmil’ which means an officer appointed by Islamic state for the collection of ‘Ushr or Zakāt. The synonymous terms of ‘Āmil’ in different books of Sharī’ah are used viz. Muṣaddiq, ‘Āshir or Sā’ī etc.
Al-Maany dictionary…. https://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar-ar/عامل/ (accessed 22nd March, 2020)
Zain ud dīn bin Ibrāhīm bin Moḥammad alias Ibn Nujaim al-Miṣri, Al-Baḥr ur Rā-iq Sharḥ Kanz al Daqā’iq, 2nd Ed.,(Lebanon, Dārul Kitāb al Islami Beirut), 6:297.
‘Alā al-dīn Abū Bakkar bin Mas’ūd bin Aḥmad al-Kāsānī al-Ḥanafi, Badāi’ al- Ṣanāie’ fī Tartīb al-Sharā’ie’, 2nd Ed. (Lebanon, Dārul Kutub al Ilmiyyah Beirut, 1406/1986), 2:37.
Such facts are collected from Umar Daraz, resident of Shaikhdara, Dubair Kohistan. He was an ‘Ushar collector at the state of Swat. He has been thoroughly interviewed by the researchers on 26th January, 2020.
The original text flows as under:
وَقَدْ يَقَعُ فِي جِبَايَةِ الْعُشُورِ بِهَذِهِ الطَّرِيقَةِ ظُلْمٌ لأِهْل الْعُشُورِ أَوْ غَبْنٌ لِبَيْتِ الْمَال ، وَلِذَلِكَ مَال بَعْضُ الْفُقَهَاءِ وَمِنْهُمُ ابْنُ عَابِدِينَ إِلَى مَنْعِهَا"”, ( sometimes this mode (Qabāla) contributes to the tyranny upon owner of crops, therefore, some fuqahā are against this (giving of ‘Ushar for a specific term or season). … Al-Mousū’atul Fiqhiyyatul Kuwaitiyyah, 2nd Ed., 30:115.
Orders of the Hukumrān Riyāsat-i-Swat, No. 10, 4th January 1960; No. 34, 30th December 1960 and 4th April 1961,…(Rome, Sultan-I. "Swat State (1915-1969): From Genesis to Merger-An analysis of political, administrative, socio-political and economic developments." (2008).) and District Record Room Gulkada Swat.
These facts are derived, during the interview, from Mufti Sardaraz Faizy, a resident of Saidu Sharif, who remained a young ‘Ushri at the state of Swat. He was interviewed, by the researchers, on 12th November, 2019).
This occurred in the village of Shaikhdara, where the local ‘Ushrī (considering themselves as upper class) used to bother a religious influential (Pīr) and inhabitant. ‘Abdul Ḥaq (baba), a spiritual leader of the same area, requested Mr. Maghfūr (an influential person in the Swat state) to shoulder this responsibility of collection on him as the others used to deal the locality unfairly. These facts were collected during an interview with Mohammad Jamal and his brother Mohammad Mahmud. They were interviewed by the researchers on January 29, 2020.
Yasin, Social Welfare Program in the Former State of Swat (The Paradise Lost), 336.
Al-Mousū’atul Fiqhiyyatul Kuwaitiyyah, 25:308.
The original text of ḥadīth flows as; تُؤْخَذُ مِنْ أَغْنِيَاءِ الْمُسْلِمِينَ وَتُرَدُّ إِلَى فُقَرَائِهِمْ
… Moḥammad bin ‘abd al- Ḥādi al-tatawī abū al-Ḥassan Nūr al-dīn al-Sindī, Ḥāshiyah al-Sindī ‘alā Sunan ibn Māja = Kifāyat al-Ḥājja fī Sharḥ Sunan ibn Māja, 2nd Ed. (Lebanon, Dār al-Jayl Beirut, N.A) 1:543
